Disrupting Old Power Paradigms

Exactly what is meant when referring to the ‘old paradigms of power’ is encapsulated in the expression “top-down corporate media” (Jenkins, 2006: 243). The phrase describes the power hold of corporations (at the top) over consumers (at the bottom) in the traditional mass media setting. This is a single-tier setting in which media information is broadcasted from a complex corporate organization to an audience that is “relatively large, heterogenous…(and) anonymous” (Wright, 1960: 606). It is important to note that this traditional relationship between the mass media and its audience, is characterized by an inequality of power – where the media companies decide what will be produced, and the audience passively consume the information. Such a relationship has given rise to the idea of media ‘gatekeepers’ – for example directors, editors and media moguls – who control what and when certain information is permitted to enter the media realm. Furthermore, new media theorists such as Jenkins, suggest that these “old rules are open to change and companies may be forced to renegotiate their relationship to consumers” (Jenkins, 2006: 243). At the heart of this transition, lies “bottom-up participatory culture” (Jenkins, 2006: 243). Thus, participatory culture can potentially dislocate these old rules of power in a variety of ways. The idea of democratisation, grassroots media production and the regulatory function of blogs, will be examined to provide clarity on this suggestion.

Those adopting the optimistic view in which “blogs are taken to be a new form of journalism” often praise the ‘democratic’ attributes of new media (Cohen, 2006: 99). In particular, blogs are hailed as an equalising force on the relationship between consumers and producers of media. Several key theorists, such as O’Shaughnessy and Stadler, describe this process as ‘democratisation’ of the media sphere (2002). The concept refers to “increased access to communication and information”, of which “the Internet is the major element” (O’Shaughnessy and Stadler, 2002: 431). Not surprisingly, the clearest and most prominent example of this idea in effect, is that of any blog. American Josh Marshall’s leading political blog, ‘Talking Points Memo’, will be used as the case in point. Specifically, it is worth noting Marshall’s blogging activity during December 2002. It was at this time that Trent Lott, the U.S Senate majority leader, made racially insensitive remarks at a key news event. Other than the ABC News, (who “ran a small piece about it, but got no reaction”) these remarks were not picked up in mainstream media reports of the occasion (Naughton, 2004: 2). As a result, “the story effectively died” (Naughton, 2004: 2). Bloggers however, led by Josh Marshall, seized on Lott’s comments. Immediately following the event, Marshall continued to scrutinize the politician and carried out his own investigations – revealing past statements made by Lott that were similarly insensitive. After the incident was made “the subject of intense online commentary,” the continuous prodding of the blogosphere “renewed media attention that converted Lott’s gaffe into a full-blown scandal” (Drezner and Farrell, 2004: 33). Lott eventually resigned his leadership position “under party pressure” (Perlmutter, 2005: 60).

Although previously rejected by the mass media, Marshall effectively kept this story alive and facilitated its deserved entry into the media system. In doing so, Marshall illustrates how “it is now possible for anyone to become a media practitioner and to start bypassing some of the standard media outlets” (O’Shaughnessy and Stadler, 2002: 431). There was no traditional editorial force acting on Marshall’s story before it was published, nor was there any pressure for the story to achieve a public reaction in order to be pursued. This “unprecedented personal control over the production, manipulation, and distribution of content”, that is offered by new media forms, challenges the inequalities of power that previously existed (O’Shaughnessy and Stadler, 2002: 431). Furthermore, the case of Trent Lott demonstrates how “blogging…has broken down the controlling distinctions that once existed between…insiders and outsiders, professionals and amateurs” (McNair, 2006: 132).

An additional source of the changing power balance can be found in citizen journalism. This form of grassroots media production refers to “content (that) is generated almost exclusively by members of the community, rather than by professional journalists” (Miller, 2005: 22). One of the most influential examples of such citizen journalism took place during the Iraq War. For instance, Salam Pax was the pseudonym for a 29-year-old Iraqi architect whose online diary, “featuring wry and candid observations about life in wartime”, earned him a cult following (Drezner and Farrell, 2004: 32). Pax's blog, 'Where is Raed?' is a “well-crafted” English-language journal, “purporting to offer a first hand report of the war” and attracting almost 100,000 visitors in March 2003 (The Advocate Report, 2003: 1). In the absence of “a substantial foreign news corps on the ground,” Pax provided regular “dispatches from the scene of the most dramatic events” (McNair, 2006: 126). His blog’s immense popularity however, can largely be attributed to his alternative perspective, as a local Iraqi who conveyed a sense of dismay at the destruction of his city (made clear in his interview with Australian talk show host Andrew Denton). It was the “intimacy and colour of his pieces, and the inherent newsworthiness of his stories” that attracted the American public, who found this unconventional newsfeed more appealing than the “Operation Shock and Awe” (Enough Rope, 2004) that was repeatedly broadcasted by mainstream media. Similarly fascinating to readers, is the real-time and local expertise aspects of grassroots journalism – also evident in Salam Pax’s blog. Pax fondly became known as the ‘Baghdad Blogger’, and as the war continued, “his readership grew to millions” while his accounts were quoted in the New York Times, BBC, and Britain’s Guardian newspaper (Drezner and Farrell, 2004: 32).

With respect to altering previous power settings of the public sphere, citizen journalism breaks down existing barriers to entry and facilitates the emergence of new ideas and alternative perspectives from the bottom-up. Its impact can be further explored using Todd Gitlin’s ‘frame theory’. Gitlin suggests that media frame reality through “principles of selection, emphasis, and presentation composed of little tacit theories about what exists, what happens, and what matters” (1980: 6). Increasingly, as Drezner and Farrell note, journalists and mainstream media take their cues about ‘what matters’ in the world from weblogs (2004). The example of Salam Pax and the popularity of his blog during the Iraq War shows how this element of participatory culture “opens up the process” of media production (Miller, 2005: 24). Citizen journalism is thus shown to improve the “transparency” of the media system, lowering the barriers to entry and allowing alternative perspectives to enter the public sphere (Miller, 2005: 24). Moreover, it allows regular members of the community to become “creators and producers and designers of media instead of passive consumers”, as they were in the traditional media power relationship (Miller, 2005: 23).

From yet another angle, blogs can be seen to alter previous ideas of power through their regulatory function. In ‘Web of Influence,’ Drezner and Farrell describe the blogosphere as “a ‘fifth estate’ that keeps watch over the mainstream media” (2004: 37). It is the speed with which bloggers are able to react to information and events, that “compels the media to correct errors in their own reporting before they mushroom” (Drezner and Farrell, 2004: 37). Josh Marshall dedicates a section of his blog to such ‘fact-checking’. ‘The Horse’s Mouth’ provides an area where mistakes in the mainstream media are highlighted and corrections presented, thus illustrating this influence. Most recently for example, Greg Sargent (a reporter-blogger on Marshall’s site) debunked an attempted Republican “hit out” (at an opposing politician,) that the Associated Press was “already running with”. In fact, “all it took was one phone call on (Sargent’s) part” to prove a vital piece of information untrue, and in effect completely rendering the attempt “a non-story” (Sargent, 2007:1). This example illustrates the way in which “bloggers have started to ‘control’ conventional journalism through their commentary on the news and on the manner of reportage” as noted by Cecile Landman (Lovink, 2006: 120). Furthermore, Yale University law Professor Jack Balkin, suggests “built in correction mechanism(s) for ideological bias” and incorrect reporting exists in the blogosphere, since it is devoted to criticizing what other people have to say (Drezner and Farrell, 2004: 37). Such is the potential for a participatory audience to become involved in the production process of media, and regulate, to some extent, the final product. This ‘fact-checking’ capacity of participatory culture is an additional way in which the old power paradigms of media have been disturbed.

One must also be aware however, of the restrictions that accompany the development of participatory culture in the public sphere. In terms of blogs, these limits centre largely on the fact that blogs are “wholly dependent upon access to the Internet” (Ezer, 2005: 10). Salam Pax’s silence shortly after the Iraq War began for example, prompted fears for his safety and alarmed his fans. But “Salam hadn’t lost his life, just his Internet access” (Dehnart, 2004: 1). Additionally, sceptics suggest several problems with blogging that are too often inadequately addressed. Diane Ezer, suggests that “it is deeply hierarchical, male-dominated…(and) centralized” (Ezer, 2005: 10). The question also remains as to whether blogs have any affect “in regimes where there is no thriving independent media sector” (Drezner and Farrell, 2004: 38). While blogs may be “more difficult to control than television or newspapers”, they are still “vulnerable to state censorship” (Drezner and Farrell, 2004: 32). It is therefore important to note, taking the case of blogs, that whilst certain power paradigms may be disrupted, there are also significant constraints acting on these effects. One such constraint is the introduction of new means of control into the public sphere.